“What Vedanta formulates is not ‘universal brotherhood’ but ‘universal oneness’. Vedanta is not antagonistic to anything, but it does not compromise or give up the truths which it considers fundamental “- Swami Vivekananda.
Hi Viewer, great to have you back, this time to Yajur Veda blog.
Yajurveda is quite different from the Rigveda & Samaveda in that Yajur Veda mainly deals with the procedures for delivering the mantras effectively and in a way it gives more importance to the priests who are well trained in the correct delivery modes and has the highest influence upon the lives of the Hindus to this day. Yajur Veda is mostly in prose form and is more pronouncedly a ritual Veda for it is essentially a guide-book for the priest who had to do practically all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. His works vary from the preparation of the place with all the implements for the sacrificial altar, down to offering oblations to the sacred fires.
Yajurveda dealt directly with the actual performance of the ritual and the application of the mantras. It occupied a unique positioning among other Vedas. If Rig Veda and Sama Veda are like fresco-painting, Yajur Veda is the wall on which they are painted. Yajur Veda established the enviable position of the priests in the Indian society of that time and no sacrifice was and is complete without their guidance.
To highlight the difference between Yajur Veda recital and Rig Veda recital, you can listen to the following video and you will notice the subtle difference in delivery by trained and proficient priests. The difference lies in swara, pada, the place of its occurrence and the sandhi and grammar rules:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WskWGwVnTf8&t=291s
The Yajurveda is also important for its presentation of philosophical doctrines. It preaches the concept of Prana and Manas also. Many times, it is quoted for depicting religious and social life of the Vedic people. It is also known for giving certain geographical data.
The Yajur Veda contains directions or formulas along with the verses that the priests used to sing during sacred ceremonies. It also details the principles of Pranayama and Yoga practice. On a deeper level, Yajurveda seeks to create consciousness among people. It sets forth a yogic practice to purify both the body as well as the mind. So, Yajurveda seeks to awaken your inner consciousness to open up new avenues of learning and understanding life and existence.
The word Yajus is associated with Yagna, Yoga and worship. Built upon Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda consists of about 1875 verses of Samhita (Hymns), Satapada Brahmana and a host of Upanishads such as Brihadaranyaka, Isha, Tittriya, Katha, Shvetashvatara and Maitri Upanishads. This is perhaps the oldest living text of rituals and worship in the world that is followed to date.
Yajur Veda is broadly classified into two groups known as Krishna (Black) Yajur and Sukla (White) Yajur Veda. Krishna is the first revelation, while Sukla is the later one. There is an interesting legend on this grouping, as follows:
Veda Vyasa, who compiled the Vedas into text form, taught the Samhita of Yajur Veda to his disciple named Vaisampayana, who in turn taught it to Rishi Yajnavalkya. Once Vaisampayana missed a very important council and he was said to have sinned. In order to rid himself of his sin, he ordered his disciples to do austerities. Yajnavalkya questioned his great master on this logic as to how one can expiate one’s sin by the austerities of disciples. At this Vaisampayana grew angry, and ordered Yajnavalkya to give back what he had learned from him, and be off!. So Yajnavalkya recited and out-poured all he had learnt and departed from Vaisampayana. That which he returned back to Vaisampayana is known as the Black Yajur Veda.
Now Yajnavalkya, having cast away his knowledge of the Vedas, felt empty and realized what kind of worthless man he had become. He started searching for a teacher. Then he turned to sun-god, who never separated himself from the Vedas. The sun-god accepted Yajnavalkya as his disciple and taught Yajur Veda in an organised form. These organised teachings came to be known as the Shukla (White) Yajur Veda.
Shukla Yajurveda may have had 16 recensions while the Krishna Yajurveda may have had as many as 86 recensions. Only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived today, Madhyandina and Kanva, and others are known by name only because they are mentioned in other texts. These two recensions are nearly the same, except for minor differences. The lost recensions of the White Yajurveda, mentioned in other texts of ancient India, include Jabala, Baudhya, Sapeyi, Tapaniya, Kapola, Paundravatsa, Avati, Paramavatika, Parasara, Vaineya, Vaidheya, Katyayana and Vaijayavapa.
Regional Editions of the White Yajurveda | |||||
Recension Name | Adhyayas | Anuvakas | No. of Verses | Regional presence | |
Madhyandina | 40 | 303 | 1975 | Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, North India | |
Kanva | 40 | 328 | 2086 | Maharashtra, Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu | |
There are four recensions of Krishna Yajurveda which have survived till date all of which are very different versions, namely, Taittriya, Maitrayani, Katha and Kapisthala Samhitas.
Regional Editions of the Black Yajurveda | ||||||
Recension Name | No. of Sub-recensions | Kanda | Prapathaka | No. of Mantras | Regional presence | |
Taittiriya | 2 | 7 | 42 | South India | ||
Maitrayani | 6 | 4 | 54 | Western India | ||
Kāṭhaka (Caraka) | 12 | 5 | 40 | 3093 | Kashmir, North India, East India | |
Kapiṣṭhala | 5 | 6 | 48 | Haryana, Rajasthan | ||
(Ref: Wikipedia)
We find detailed description of sacrifices in the Samhita of Yajurveda. The Vajasaneyi-Samhita gives a vivid description of many important sacrifices such as – Darsha-purnamasa, Agnihotra, Somayaga, Chaturmasya, Agnihotra, Vajapeya, Ashvamedha, Sarva-medha, Brahma-yajya, Pitrimedha, Sautramani, and so on. The text describes the way in which religious rituals and sacred ceremonies should be performed, and it is therefore primarily intended for Hindu priests.
The Sukla Samhita has forty adhyayas, containing the mantras used with the following rituals:
Chapters of the White Yajurveda | ||||
Chapter No. | Ritual Name | Days | Nature of Ritual | |
1-2 | Darsapurnamasa (Full and new moon rituals) | 2 | Offer cow milk to fire. | |
3 | Agnihotra | 1 | Offer butter and milk to fire. Welcome three chief seasons: Spring, Rains and Autumn. | |
4-8 | Somayajna | Bathe in river. Offer milk and soma to fire. Offerings to deities of thought and speech. Prayer to Vishnu to harm no crop, guard the cattle, expel demons. | ||
9-10 | Vajapeya and Rajasuya | Cup of Victory, Inauguration of a King. Offering of butter to fire. | ||
11-18 | Agni chayana | 360 | Formulas and rituals for building altars and hearths for Agni yajna, with largest in the shape of outspread eagle or falcon. | |
19-21 | Sautramani | Offerings of rice-barley liquor plus boiled millet to fire. Expiate evil indulgences. For dethroned king, for soldiers going to war for victory, for regulars to acquire cattle and wealth. | ||
22-25 | Ashvamedha | 180 or 360 | Only by King. A horse is released, followed by armed soldiers, wherein anyone who stops or harms the wandering horse is declared enemy of state. Prayers to deities. | |
26-29 | Supplementary formulas for above sacrifices | |||
30-31 | Purusha medha | Symbolic sacrifice of Purusha (Cosmic Being). The ritual plays out the cosmic creation. | ||
32-34 | Sarva medha | 10 | Stated to be more important than Purusha medha. This ritual is a sacrifice for Universal Success and Prosperity. Ritual for one to be wished well, or someone leaving the home, particularly for solitude and moksha, who is offered curd and ghee. | |
35 | Pitri yajna | Ritual funeral-related formulas for cremation. Sacrifice to the Father and Ancestors. | ||
36-39 | Pravargya | The ritual is for long life, unimpaired faculties, health, strength, prosperity, security, tranquillity and contentment. Offerings of cow milk and grains to yajna fire. | ||
40 | Isha upanishad | This chapter is not an external sacrifice ritual-related. It is Isha Upanishad, a philosophical treatise about inner Self (Atman). The verse 40.6 states, "The man who in his Self beholds all creatures and all things that be, and in all beings sees his Self, then he doubts no longer, ponders not. | ||
(Wikipedia)
You can listen to the Yajur Veda recital in the following link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iS7PUIZfu_w
Satapatha Brahmana
Now, let us move on from the Samhitas to the second part of Yajur Veda. The title Satapatha Brahmana means "Brahmana of the Hundred Paths". It is one of the largest Brahmana text that has survived. It includes a "veritable encyclopaedia of meandering opinions on ritual and other matters". The White Yajur Veda has its Brahmana recorded separately in a clear fashion, while in the Black Yajur Veda it is mixed up along with the Samhita. Despite this major difference in the structure, the yagna sacrifices that both the White and Black Yajur Vedas outline are almost identical.
Shatapatha Brahmana, is divided into 14 Kandas, 100 Adhyayas, 68 Prapathakas, 436 Brahmanas and 7179 Kandikas. There are sixty Kandas in the first nine Kandas. The tenth Kanda is called Agnirahasya, eleventh is Astadhyayayi and kandas twelfth to fourteenth are called Parisishta. The Brāhmaṇa of the Vājasaneyins bears the name of Śatapatha, that is, the Brāhmaṇa 'of a hundred paths,' because it consists of a hundred lectures (adhyāyas). Besides the genuine myths which we find in the Brāhmaṇas, there is also a large number of stories. We can see that the Brahmana elaborately describes the brief stories found in Rig Veda.
This Brahmana is written by the father of the Indian philosophy, Saint Yajnavalkya. Described as the most complete, systematic, and important of the Brahmanas (commentaries on the Vedas), it contains detailed explanations of Vedic sacrificial rituals, symbolism, and mythology. Particularly in its description of sacrificial rituals (including construction of complex fire-altars), the Shatapatha Brahmana provides scientific knowledge of geometry (e.g. calculations of “pi” and the root of the Pythagorean theorem) and observational astronomy (e.g. planetary distances and the assertion that the Earth is circular) from the Vedic period.
The Shatapatha Brahmana is also considered to be significant in the development of Vaishnavism as the origin of several Puranic legends and avatars of the Rig Vedic god Vishnu. Notably, all of them (Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, and Vamana) are listed as the first five avatars in the Dasavatara (the ten principal avatars of Vishnu). The Satapatha Brahmana itself contains astronomical references dated by academics to c. 2100 B.C.E, and references the drying up of the Sarasvati river, believed to have occurred around 1900 B.C.E
The 14 books of the Shatapatha Brahmana can be divided into two major parts. The first 9 books have close textual commentaries, often line by line, of the first 18 books of the corresponding samhita of the Śukla (white) Yajurveda. The remaining 5 books of the Satapatha cover supplementary and ritualistically newer material; the content of the 14th and last book constitutes the Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad. The name 'Satapatha', as Eggeling has suggested, might have been based on the number of Adhyayas in the Madhyandina which is exactly one hundred.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is from the last Kanda (i.e. book 17) of the Shatapatha Brahmana. Swami Madhavananda states that this Upanishad is 'the greatest of the Upanishads... not only in extent; but it is also the greatest in respect of its substance and theme. It is the greatest Upanishad in the sense that the illimitable, all-embracing, absolute, self-luminous, blissful reality - the Brhat or Brahman, identical with Atman, constitutes its theme'.
Geometry and mathematics of the Satapatha Brahmana are generally considered the description of the earliest science in India. Specifically, the development of the scientific method in India in that age was inspired by some rough parallels between the physical universe and man's physiology [i.e. correspondence or equivalence between the macrocosm and microcosm]. This led to the notion that if one could understand man fully, that would eventually lead to the understanding of the universe... This led to a style of seeking metaphors to describe the unknown, which is the first step in the development of a scientific theory.
The main elements of the astronomy of Vedanga Jyotisa, one of the earliest known Vedic texts on astronomy, are already contained in Satapatha Brahmana and earlier books. Vedic ritual sacrifices described in texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana are intended to capture 'time in motion', noting some rituals lasted an entire year.
In relation to sacrifice and astronomical phenomena detailed in texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana (e.g. sacrifices performed during the waxing and waning of the moon), 'the Vedic people had a celestial counterpart of their sacrificial ground. For example, the Yajna Varaha sacrifice is conducted in relation to the constellation of Orion. When the sun became united with Orion at the vernal equinox, this commenced the yearly Yajna Varaha sacrifice'. The vernal (March) equinox marks the onset of spring, and is celebrated in India as the Holi festival (the spring festival of colours).
I.G. Pearce states that the Satapatha Brahmana - along with other Vedic texts such as the Vedas, Samhitas, and Tattiriya Samhita - evidences 'the astronomy of the Vedic period which, given very basic measuring devices (in many cases just the naked eye), gave surprisingly accurate values for various astronomical quantities. These include the relative size of the planets the distance of the earth from the sun, the length of the day, and the length of the year'. A.A. Macdonell adds that the Satapatha in particular is notable as in it the Earth was 'expressly called circular (parimandala)'.
In the construction of fire altars used for sacrifices, Kak also notes the importance of the number, configuration, measurements, and patterns of bricks representing factors such as:
Vedic Meters: The rhythmic structure of verses in sacred utterances or mantras, particularly from the Rig Veda
Area/size and numeric equivalences: Units of time such as Muhurtas, months, seasons, and days; and Vedic numerology, an example being the Falcon altar (see left image), which was constructed from five layers of 200 bricks each, the total 1,000 bricks symbolising the Purusha, the first principle of creation, enumerated in the Rig Veda (10.90):
“A thousand heads hath Purusha, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet. On every side pervading earth he fills a space ten fingers wide.”— Rig Veda Book 10, Hymn 90, Verse 1.
Notably, P. N. Sinha states that the number 1,000 represents 'the thousand Maha yugas of every Kalpa' (about 4.32 billion years), illustrated by the 1,000 hoods of the Snake Vasuki/Ananta on which the Earth is supported.
I.G. Pearce, F. Staal, and D.M. Knipe all agree with Kak, repeating that the number, layering, size, and configuration of bricks to construct sacrificial altars - real and symbolic - as detailed in texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana had numerous rules, with Staal adding - in relation to similarities with ancient Greek, Babylonian, and Chinese geometry:
Vedic geometry is attached to ritual because it is concerned with the measurement and construction of ritual enclosures and of altars. Vedic geometry developed from the construction of these and other complex altar shapes.
All are given numerous interpretations in the Brahmanas and Aranyakas. But the Sulba Sutras (belonging to the Śrauta ritual and containing geometry related to fire-altar construction) contain the earliest extant verbal expression of the closely related theorem that is still often referred to as the Theorem of Pythagoras but that was independently discovered by the Vedic Indians.
Noting that Kak also provides three values for Pi (the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter) from the Satapatha Brahmana, Pearce elaborates on the advancement of Vedic mathematics in general in relation to the construction of sacrificial altars:
C.S. Seshadri states that familiarity with the four fundamental operations of arithmetic is evidence in Vedic Literature like the Satapatha Brahmana, the Taittiriya Samhita and even the Rig Veda. A passage from the ancient Satapatha Brahmana gives all divisors of 720. This passage (10.4.2.1-18) is noted by Kak as having exactly 15 factors (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20, 24).
A.A. Macdonell, A.B. Keith, J. Roy, J. Dowson, W.J. Wilkins, S. Ghose, M.L. Varadpande, N Aiyangar, and D.A. Soifer all state that several avatars and associated Puranic legends of Vishnu either originate or at least were significantly developed in the Satapatha Brahmana. Notably, all constitute the first five avatars listed in the Dasavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu.
Developments that occur in the general character of Vishnu in the SATAPATHABrahmana literature have far-reaching influence on the growth and moulding of avataric Vishnu. Vishnu is explicitly stated to be sacrificed in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The story goes that Vishnu fought with various Asuras for quite a long period and became so tired that he went into deep sleep, keeping the bow by His side. The Gods were worried that the world would suffer in the absence of protection by Vishnu and frantically tried to wake Him up in vain. The gods then planned to cut-off the bow string, which would make a huge noise to wake Him up. But when the beetles were asked to cut the string, they found to their horror that it accidentally chopped off Vishnu’s head, which fell off with a thunderous roar and became a Sun. The gods were then asked by a voice to fix a horse’s head to bring Vishnu back. Thus the new avatar of Vishnu as Hayagriva came into being. Vishnu then went on to kill other Asuras including the horse-headed Asura, who had received a boon that he could only be killed by someone with a horse-head and then regained His original form as Vishnu. This was Vishnu's plan all along,
There is repeated reference to tortoise as well. The 'kapalas [cups used in ritual sacrifices] are usually arranged in such a manner as to produce a fancied resemblance to the upper shell of the tortoise, which is a symbol of the sky, as the tortoise itself represents the universe. In the same way the term kapala, in the singular, is occasionally applied to the skull, as well as to the upper and the lower case of the tortoise, e.g. Sat Br. VII, 5, 1, 2 [7.5.1.2]. The tortoise is also stated to represent the three worlds (i.e. the triloka).
Then there is the story of Matsya, the fish avatar of Vishnu, appearing to Manu to warn him of an impending deluge. After being reared by and growing to an enormous size, Matsya then guides Manu's ship to safety at the peak of a mountain, where Manu re-establishes life through the performance of Vedic sacrificial rites. In Puranic accounts, Matsya also rescues the Vedas taken under the water, after they were stolen from Brahma by the Asura called Hayagriva (not to be confused with Hayagriva, the horse-headed avatar of Vishnu). In relation to the Rig Veda, Sacrifice is metaphorically called [a] Ship and as Manu means man, the thinker, so the story seems to be a parable of the Ship of Sacrifice being the means for man's crossing the seas of his sins, and troubles.
There is the story of Narasimha destroying the Asura-King Hiranyakashipu, who after undertaking severe penances, was granted a boon by Brahma that he could not be killed inside or outside any residence, on the ground or in the sky, or by any god, human, animal, or weapon. The man-lion avatar of Vishnu thus put the demon on His lap and killed him with claws.
This Brahmana also tells the story of Vamana, the dwarf avatar of Vishnu, who took back the three worlds from the Asura king Bali (grandson of Prahlada) in three steps.
Varaha avatar is found mentioned as the symbolic embodiment of sacrifice. Stated in the Nirukta to be synonymous with clouds and rain (sacrifice produces rain, rain feeds crops, and crops feed living beings), Varaha is most commonly associated with the legend of lifting the Earth out of the Cosmic Waters, and in various accounts also battles and defeats the Asura Hiranyaksa to do so.
Yajur Vedic Upanishads
(Philosophical Treaties)
“I go into the Upanishads to ask questions.”
– Danish physicist and Nobel Laureate Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
“The Upanishads are the production of the highest human wisdom”
– German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer
Yajur Veda brims with six principal Upanishads as its jewels, all the six being very important from Vedic stand point in imparting Hindu philosophy. All the Upanishads put together, they contain 1975 mantras.
There are in fact a total of 51 Upanishads in Yajur Veda including all minor ones. It will be noted that Yajur Veda contains almost 50% of the 108 Upanishads, the other Vedas sharing the balance at Rig (10), Sama (16) and Atharva (31) Upanishads each.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Isha Vaasya Upanishad
Taittiriya Upanishad
Katha Upanishad
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
The first two belong to Sukla Yajur Veda and rest four belong to Krishna Yajur Veda. Two words that are of paramount importance in grasping the Upanishads are Brahman and Atman. The Brahman is the universal spirit and the Atman is the individual Self. The Upanishads also contain the first and most definitive explications of the divine syllable Aum, the cosmic vibration that underlies all existence. The mantra Aum Shānti Shānti Shānti, translated as "the soundless sound, peace, peace, peace", is often found in the Upanishads. The path of bhakti or "Devotion to God" is foreshadowed in Upanishadic literature
The three main approaches in arriving at the solution to the problem of the Ultimate Reality have traditionally been the theological, the cosmological and the psychological approaches. The cosmological approach involves looking outward, to the world; the psychological approach meaning looking inside or to the Self; and the theological approach is looking upward to God.
The three main schools of Vedanta are Advaita, Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita.
Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy.
Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought. It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman (Paramatman) and Atman (Jivatman). Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy followed by Adi Sankara.
Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya around 1150 B.C.. Dvaita is regarded as the philosophic exposition of theism, translates as "dualism" in English. Madhva's Dvaita differs from the Western definition of dualism in that while he agrees to Brahman and Atman as two mutually irreducible substances that constitute reality, he regards only one, Brahman, as being independent and Atman dependant on Brahman.
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja in 1137 B.C.. Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy of love that tries to reconcile the extremes of the other two monistic and theistic systems of Vedanta. According to this philosophy, Jivatman is a substance as well as an attribute and we can call this system "qualified non-dualism" or the adjectival monism. While the Dvaita insists on the difference between the Brahman and the Jiva, Visistadvaita states that God is their inner-Self as well as transcendent.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Brihat means “Great” and Aranyaka means “Forest” and hence this Upanishad is called the “Great Forest Teachings”. It is among the most famous, not only for establishing the concept of liberation from the cycle of rebirth and death and union of the Atman with Brahman but through its use by the 20th-century CE poet T.S. Eliot (l. 1888-1965 CE) in his masterpiece “The Wasteland”. What sparked his interest in Vedic thought is not recorded but it is known that he was occupied with Sanskrit, Pali and the metaphysics of Patanjali. The Waste Land reiterates the three cardinal virtues of Damyatha (Restraint), Datta (Charity) and Dayadhvam (Compassion) and the state of mind that follows obedience to the commands as indicated by the blessing Shanti, Shanti, Shanti — the peace that passes understanding.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad belongs to Sukla Yajur Veda and is one of the famous, largest and oldest of all the Upanishads. The text is a treatise on Ātman (Soul, Self), with passages on metaphysics, ethics and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various Indian religions, ancient and medieval scholars.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is a treatise on Ātman (Soul, Self), includes passages on metaphysics, ethics and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various Indian religions, ancient and medieval scholars, and attracted secondary works such as those by Adi Shankara and Madhvacharya.
Here (1.3.28) we find the famous verse:
asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya,
mrityor ma amritam gamaya
"From what is temporary lead me to what is eternal, from the darkness lead me to the light, from death lead me to eternal life."
At verse 1.4.10 we find the famous maha vakya considered the essence of the Yajur Veda:-
aham brahmasmi, "I am Brahman".
Tradition says that the essence of Vedanta is enshrined in the four Mahāvākyas or Great Sayings, each culled from an Upanishad correspondingly belonging to Rig, Yajur, Sama, andAtharva Veda. The purport of each Mahāvākya is the same, that is, to declare in unambiguous terms, the identity between the Individual Self (Jīva) and the Cosmic Self (Īśwara) which are but different manifestations of the same universal Consciousness called Brahman or Atman. These Mahāvākyas have immense spiritual and philosophical significance in the Vedanta.
Prajñānam Brahma – Consciousness is Brahman- Aitreya Upanishad – Rig Veda
Aham Brahmāsmi – ‘I am Brahman’- Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Yajur Veda
Tat Tvam Asi - Thou art That - Chandogya Upanishad – Sama Veda
Ayamātmā Brahma - All this is surely Brahman. The Self is Brahman - Mandukya Upanishad – Atharva Veda.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad begins with the explanation of the meaning of the Vedic yagna sacrifice, and states that Vac (the creative word, the Logos) is the origin of the universe. Then it explains Dharma (the ethical law), the four varnas (social categories) and the nature of prana (life energy). The second adhyaya continues by speaking of the nature of Brahman and Atman, the third speaks of the process of death and the destination of the living being after death, and the nature of Antaryami (the Supreme Soul in every being's heart).
We also find the description of the three states of awareness, and the explanation of reincarnation and the symbolism of Gayatri mantra. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has six adhyayas in total.
All Upanishads have their Shathi Mantra and following is the Shanti Mantra of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad:
ॐ पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं पूर्णात्पूर्णमदुच्यते ।
पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते ॥
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥
oṃ pūrṇamadaḥ pūrṇamidaṃ pūrṇātpūrṇamaducyate .
pūrṇasya pūrṇamādāya pūrṇamevāvaśiṣyate ..
oṃ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ ..
Meaning: The whole is all That. The whole is all this. The whole was born of the whole. Taking the whole from the whole, what remains is the whole.
The mantra 1.2.1 of this Upanishad explains the nature of creation as follows:
“There was nothing whatsoever here in the beginning. It was covered only by Death (Hiranyagarbha), or Hunger, for hunger is death. He created the mind, thinking, 'Let me have a mind'. He moved about worshipping (himself). As he was worshipping, water was produced. (Since he thought), 'As I was worshipping, water sprang up', therefore Arka (fire) is so called. Water (or happiness) surely comes to one who knows how Arka (fire) came to have this name of Arka”.
“Water is Arka. What was there (like) forth on the water was solidified and became this earth. When that was produced, he was tired. While he was (thus) tired and distressed, his essence, or lustre, came forth. This was Fire”. (1.2.2)
Further slokas in this Upanishad likewise describe the various aspects of how creation happened.Sage Yajnavalkya (8th century BCE), the chief sage of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, was among the first to describe the consequences of our actions (karma), the meaning of the Self (Atman) and the origin of the universe. According to Yajnavalkya, our universe was first wholly undifferentiated, without name and form and without any duality of subject and object. It was only the essential and undifferentiated Atman. It then said, “I Am Being (Brahman)” and so arose its name and identity. It continued to differentiate and thereby formed the world and the gods, all humans, food to feed them, senses, the rest of the world.
In a discussion with his wife Maitreyi, Sage Yajnavalkya said our children, ways of life, the worlds, the gods, all are dear to us because the Atman is in them. The self in all beings is this Self, this eternal Brahman. All things in this world are pervaded by it, nor is anything left uncovered.
In a famous conversation with Janaka, king of Videha, Yajnavalkya is asked, “What light guides a person here in this world?” Yajnavalkya concludes, “He who sees the Self in his own self and sees the all in the Self, becomes a knower of Being.” Such a knower of Being becomes calm, self-controlled and liberated from all evil and doubt.
Regarding the Self, the "Brihadaranyaka" states that only experiential knowledge of Atman and Brahman (the universal Self) can lead to samadhi, or enlightenment. The text describes specific methods of meditation, rites and rituals, as well as three virtues yogis should practice. These virtues are generosity, compassion and self-restraint. They are the foundation of the yamas (or ethical rules) in Hinduism and yoga, and are described by the sage, Patanjali, in his Yoga Sutras.
Quotes from this Upanishad:
Listen to Sringeri Acharya on Yajur Vedam:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmCkkPGGnCs
When a drum is beaten, you cannot distinguish its various particular notes, but they are included in the general note of the drum or in the general sound produced by different kinds of strokes. The notes of the drum have no existence apart from the general note of the drum. Even so, nothing particular is cognised apart from the Pure, Intelligent, Self. The Supreme Self is the essence.
As a lump of salt, when thrown into water, becomes dissolved into mere water, and could not be taken out again (or perceived), but wherever we taste the water, it would have the taste of salt; thus, verily, does this great Being, Infinite, Independent, consisting of nothing but Consciousness, rise from out of these elements and vanish again in them.
“As a spider moves along the thread it has woven from within itself, and as sparks emerge from the fire, so too do all the worlds, divinities, beings and their breaths come forth from the Self that is Being. This manifest world is true and Being is the truth of truths (satyasya satya).”
Self is to be described as “Not this, not this” (Neti Neti). He is incomprehensible, imperishable, unattached, free, and not subject to pain or destruction.
Paul Deussen calls this Upanishad, "unique in its richness and warmth of presentation", with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times. Max Muller also has his wondered on the contents of this Upanishad.
Now as a man, when embraced by a beloved wife,
knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within,
thus this person, when embraced by the conscious Self,
knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within.
This indeed is his true form, in which his wishes are fulfilled,
in which the Self only is his wish, in which no other wish is left,
he is free from any sorrow.
Isha Vaasya Upanishad
“Each thing that moves on earth is enveloped by the Lord. With that renounced, enjoy thyself. Covet no wealth of any man”.
Among the principal Upanishads, Isavasya (Isha Upanishad) is the only one that is part of Samhita and all other Upanishads form part of the Bramana section. Isha Upanishad consists of 18 verses in poetry and is the end part of Sukla Yajurveda Samhita.
The Isha Upanishad is the second one in the Sukla Yajurveda. It is one of the shortest Upanishads, embedded as the final chapter of the Shukla Yajurveda. The root of the word Ishvara comes from Ish, which means "ruler, master, lord". The term vāsyam literally means "hidden in, covered with, enveloped by".
The Isha Upanishad discusses the Atman (Soul, Self) theory of Hinduism, and is referenced by both Dvaita (dualism) and Advaita (non-dualism) sub-schools of Vedanta. It is classified as a "poetic Upanishad".
In ancient India there lived a most virtuous Brahmin who was considered by all to be the best authority on philosophy. One day the local king ordered him to appear before him. The king told him that he had three questions that puzzle–even torment him.
Where is God? Why don’t I see Him? And what does he do all day?
The king said “If you can’t answer these three questions I will have your head cut off.” The Brahmin was appalled and terrified, because the answers to these questions were not just complex, they were impossible to formulate. In other words: he did not know the answers. So his execution date was set.
On the morning of that day the Brahmin’s young son appeared and asked the king if he would release his father if he–the son–would answer the questions. The king agreed, and the son asked that a container of milk be brought to him. It was done. Then the boy asked that the milk be churned into butter. That, too, was done.
“The first two of your questions are now answered,” he told the king.
The king objected that he had been given no answers, so the son asked: “Where was the butter before it was churned?”
“In the milk,” replied the king.
“In what part of the milk?” asked the boy.
“In all of it.”
“Just so, agreed the boy, “and in the same way God is within all things and pervades all things.”
“Why don’t I see Him, then,” pressed the king.
“Because you do not ‘churn’ your mind to refine your perceptions through meditation. If you do that, you will see God. But not otherwise. Now let my father go.”
“Not at all,” insisted the king. “You have not told me what God does all day.”
“To answer that,” said the boy, “we will have to change places. You come stand here and let me sit on the throne.”
The request was so audacious the king complied, and in a moment he was standing before the enthroned Brahmin boy who told him: “This is the answer. One moment you were here and I was there. Now things are reversed. God perpetually lifts up and casts down every one of us. Our lives are completely in His hand, and He does with us as He wills”. The Brahmin was released and his son was given many honours and gifts by the king.
The Isha Upanishad opens with the answer to the question as to God’s whereabouts – “He is within all”
The first verse of the Upanishad goes as follows:
ईशावास्यमिदं सर्वं यत् किंच जगत्यां जगत्
तेन त्यक्तेन भुञ्जीथा मा गृधः कस्यस्विद् धनम् || 1 ||
īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yat kiṃca jagatyāṃ jagat
tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasvid dhanam (1)
Meaning:
All that is here in this ever-changing world constitutes the abode of the Ruler (He is the in-dweller in everything); therefore, when you take anything here to utilize for your benefit, do it with a sense of renunciation (rather than arrogation); you should not covet others’ means of living (dhana here means ‘prey’, the thing on which one feeds on)’.
What this means is that everything in the world changes continuously. But there is a ruler and the whole world is his abode. Therefore, no one can possess anything here but can enjoy the fruit of life. As such, there is no point in being arrogant about yourself, and when you enjoy something and take something to enjoy, you must be guided by the renunciation principle.
What does this renunciation really mean? There should be something that we have to renounce. Hence, there arises a dilemma. The second verse clarifies this dilemma, and it says that karma is the answer. The Isha Upanishad, in hymns 2–6, acknowledges the contrasting tension within Hinduism, between the empirical life of householder and action (karma) and the spiritual life of renunciation and knowledge (jnana).
“Should one wish to live a hundred years on this earth, he should live doing Karma. While thus, as man, you live, there is no way other than this by which Karma will not cling to you. Those who partake the nature of the Asuras [evil], are enveloped in blind darkness, and that is where they reside who ignore their Atman [Self]. For liberation, know your Atman, which is motionless yet faster than mind, it is distant, yet it is near, it is within all, yet it is without all this. It is all pervading. And he who beholds all beings in the Self, and the Self in all beings, he never turns away from it [the Self].”
The above Hymn 2-6 of Isha Upanishad acknowledging the harmlessness and necessity of social activity, that may be seen as potentially intermediate preparation to the path of Knowledge. The Isha Upanishad, is reminding the reader that neither routine life and rituals are right nor are they wrong,
Isha Upanishad in verse 11 recommends that one must pursue material knowledge as well as spiritual wisdom simultaneously, and that a fulfilling life results from the harmonious, balanced alignment of the individual and the social interests, the personal and the organizational goals, the material and the spiritual pursuits of life.
The hymns 12 through 14 of Isha Upanishad, caution against the pursuit of only manifested cause or only spiritual cause of anything, stating that one sided pursuits lead to darkness. To be enlightened, seek both (ubhayam saha), suggests the Upanishad. It asserts that he who knows both the Real and the Perishable, both the manifested not-True cause and the hidden True cause, is the one who is liberated unto immortality.
In final hymns 15 through 18, the Upanishad asserts a longing for Knowledge, asserting that it is hidden behind the golden disc of light, but a light that one seeks. It reminds one's own mind to remember one's deeds, and accept its consequences. It assert the introspective precept, "O Agni (fire) and mind, lead me towards a life of virtues, guide me away from a life of vices", and thus unto the good path and the enjoyment of wealth (of both karma's honey and Self-realization).
The final hymns of Isha Upanishad also declare the foundational premise, "I am He", equating one soul's oneness with cosmic soul.
पुरुषः सोऽहमस्मि = Purusha Sohamasmi, - I am the Purusha within thee
Taittiriya Upanishad
Taittiriya is a Sanskrit word that means "from Tittiri". The root of this name has been interpreted in two ways: "from Vedic sage Tittiri" or alternatively, it being a collection of verses from mythical students who became "partridges" (birds) in order to gain knowledge. The later root of the title comes from the nature of Taittriya Upanishad which, like the rest of "dark or black Yajur Veda", is a collection of unrelated but individually meaningful verses.
Each chapter of the Taittiriya Upanishad is called a Valli, which literally means a medicinal climber plant that grows independently yet is attached to a main tree. This symbolic terminology is apt and likely reflects the root and nature of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which too is largely independent of the liturgical Yajur Veda, and is attached to the main text.
The Taittiriya Upanishad is found in the Krishna Yajurveda. It is the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of Taittiriya Aranyaka, which are also called, respectively, the Siksha Valli, the Ananda Valli and the Bhrigu Valli.
Siksha Valli:
The invocation or shanti mantra of this section is as follows:
aum sam no mitrah sam varunah;
sam no bhavaty aryama;
sam na indro brihaspatih;
sam no visnururukramah;
namo brahmane; namaste vayo;
tvam eva pratyaksam brahmasi;
tvam eva pratyaksam brahma vadisyami;
ritam vadisyami; satyam vadisyami;
tanmamavatu; tadvaktaramavatu;
avatu mam; avatu vaktaram;
aum santih santih santih.
Meaning:
The Siksha Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad derives its name from ‘Shiksha’ which means "instruction, education". The various lessons of this first chapter are related to education of students in ancient Vedic era, their initiation into a school and their responsibilities after graduation. It mentions lifelong "pursuit of knowledge", includes hints of "Self-knowledge", but is largely independent of the second and third chapter of the Upanishad which discuss Atman and Self-knowledge.
The Siksha Valli includes promises by students entering the Vedic school, an outline of basic course content, the nature of advanced courses and creative work from human relationships, ethical and social responsibilities of the teacher and the students, the role of breathing and proper pronunciation of Vedic literature, the duties and ethical precepts that the graduate must live up to post-graduation.
The second anuvaka of Siksha Valli, highlights phonetics as an important element of the Vedic instruction. The verse asserts that the student must master the principles of sound as it is created and as perceived, in terms of the structure of linguistics, vowels, consonants, balancing, accentuation (stress, meter), speaking correctly, and the connection of sounds in a word from articulatory and auditory perspectives.
Since the Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on, this emphasize on phonetics helped transmit and preserve the extensive Vedic literature from 2nd millennium BCE onwards, long before the methods of mass printing and book preservation were developed
The third anuvaka of Shiksha Valli asserts that everything in the universe is connected. In its interesting ‘theory of connecting links’, it states that letters are joined to form words and words are joined to express ideas, just like earth and heavens are forms causally joined by space through the medium of Vayu (air), and just like the fire and the sun are forms causally connected through lightning with the medium of clouds. It asserts that it is knowledge that connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, while the child is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation. Speech (expression) is the joining link between upper and lower jaw, and it is speech which connects people.
The fourth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a prayer of the teacher, for the welfare of the students.
The fifth anuvaka declares that Bhūr, Bhuvaḥ, Svar are three holy exclamations, then adds that Bhur is the breathing out, Bhuvah is the breathing in, while Svar is the intermediate step between those two. It also states that Brahman is Atman, and all deities and divinities are its limbs, that Self-knowledge is the Eternal Principle, and the human beings who have this Oneness and Self-knowledge are served by the gods.
The sixth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli asserts that the Atman exists and when an individual Self attains certain characteristics, it becomes one with Brahman and the sixth anuvaka ends with exhortation to meditate on this Oneness principle.
The seventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is an unconnected lesson asserting that "everything in this whole world is fivefold" - sensory organs, human anatomy (skin, flesh, tendon, bones, marrow), breathing, energy (fire, wind, sun, moon, stars), space (earth, aerial space, heavens, poles, intermediate poles). There is parallelism between man and the world, microcosm and macrocosm, and he who understands this idea of parallelism becomes there through the macrocosm itself.
The eighth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is another seemingly unconnected lesson. It includes an exposition of the syllable word ‘Ohm’, stating that this word is inner part of the word Brahman, it signifies the Brahman, it is this whole world. The verse asserts that this syllable word is used often and for diverse purposes, to remind and celebrate that Brahman. It lists the diverse uses of Om in ancient India, at invocations, at Agnidhra, in songs, in prayers, in Sastras, during sacrifices, during rituals, during meditation, and during recitation of the Vedas.
The ninth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a rhythmic recitation of ethical duties of all human beings, where svādhyāya is the "perusal of oneself" (study yourself), and the pravacana(exposition and discussion of Vedas) is emphasized. The list of duties includes justice, truthfulness, fire rituals, oblations, hospitality, kind affability, procreation, raising children to the best of one’s ability etc.
The tenth anuvaka asserts the power of individuals after attaining the blissful state.
The eleventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a list of golden rules which the Vedic era teacher imparted to the graduating students (convocation address ?) as the ethical way of life. The verses ask the graduates to take care of themselves and pursue Dharma, Artha and Kama to the best of their abilities and list behavioural guidelines for the graduating students from a gurukul.
मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो भव ।
आचार्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव ।
यान्यनवद्यानि कर्माणि तानि सेवितव्यानि । नो इतराणि ।
यान्यस्माकँ सुचरितानि तानि त्वयोपास्यानि । नो इतराणि ॥ २ ॥
Treat your mother as god, Treat your father as god,
Treat your Acharya (guru) as god, Treat your guest as god.
Let your actions be honourable, none else.
The acts that you consider good when done to you, do those to others, none else.
This anuvaka also talks of charity and giving, with faith, sympathy, modesty and cheerfulness, as ethical precept
Ananda Valli
The Ananda Valli, (also called Brahmananda Valli), is one of the earliest known theories in history on the nature of man and knowledge, and resembles but pre-dates the Hellenistic Hermetic and Neoplatonic theories recorded in different forms about a millennium later.
This begins with the invocation or shanti mantra:
ॐ सह नाववतु ।
सह नौ भुनक्तु । सह वीर्यं करवावहै ।
तेजस्वि नावधीतमस्तु मा विद्विषावहै ।
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥
sa ha navavatu
saha nau bhunaktu; saha viryam karavavahai;
tejasvi navadhitam astu; ma vidvisavahai;
aum, santih, santih, santih.
Om!
May Brahman protect us both (teacher and student)
May we both enjoy knowledge. May we learn together.
May our study be brilliant. May we never quarrel.
Om! Peace! peace! peace!
The Ananda Valli is remarkable for its Kosha theory (or Layered Maya theory), expressing that man reaches his highest potential and understands the deepest knowledge by a process of learning the right and unlearning the wrong. Real deeper knowledge is hidden in layers of superficial knowledge.
The Ananda Valli classifies these as concentric layers (sheaths) of knowledge-seeking. The outermost layer is called:
Annamaya kosha (all beings need food, but food is not Atman), which envelops and hides
Pranamaya kosha (all beings breathe, but breathe is not Atman), which in turn envelops
Manomaya kosha (all beings have mind and memory, but this is not Atman), inside which is
Vijnanamaya kosha (knowledge, ethics, faith, justice, truth, yoga and power to perceive and reason) and finally
Anandamaya kosha (Soul, Self, spirituality), which the Upanishad states is the innermost, deepest layer.
Bhrigu Valli
The Bhrigu Valli's theme is the exposition of the concept of Atman-Brahman and what it means to be a self-realized, free, liberated human being. The first six anuvakas of Bhrigu Valli are called Bhargavi Varuni Vidya, which means "the knowledge Bhrigu got from his father, Varuni".
It is in these anuvakas that sage Varuni advises Bhrigu with one of the oft-cited definition of Brahman, as "that from which beings originate, through which they live, and in which they re-enter after death, explore that because that is Brahman."
This Bhrigu Valli states that everything and everyone is asserted to be connected and deeply inter-related to everything and everyone else, by being food (of energy, of material, of knowledge). "Food is founded on food", asserts verse 3.9 of Taittiriya Upanishad, which then illustrates the idea with the specific example "earth is founded on (food for) space, and space is founded on (food for) earth".
Bhrigu Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad recommends the following maxims and vows:
"Never scorn food", which metaphorically means "never scorn anything or anyone."
"Increase food", which metaphorically means "increase prosperity of everyone and everything"
"Refuse no guest to your house, and share food with everyone including strangers", which metaphorically means "compassionately help everyone, sharing plentiful prosperity and knowledge".
Katha Upanishad
(The Secrets of Life After Death)
‘Katha’ literally means "distress". Katha is also the name of a sage, credited as the founder of a branch of the Krishna Yajur-veda, as well as the term for a female pupil or follower of Kathas school of Yajurveda. Katha also means "story”.
The Katha Upanishad consists of two Adhyāyas, each divided into three sections (Vallis). The Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa – the son of Sage Vajasravasa, who meets Yama, the Hindu deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman and moksha (liberation).
It is among the most widely studied Upanishads. Katha Upanishad was translated into Persian in 17th century, copies of which were then translated into Latin and distributed in Europe. Other philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer praised it, Edwin Arnold rendered it in verse as "The Secret of Death", and Ralph Waldo Emerson credited Katha Upanishad for the central story at the end of his essay Immortality, as well as his poem "Brahma".
The Upanishad opens with the story of Vajasravasa, who gives away all his worldly possessions. However, his son Nachiketa sees the charitable sacrifice as a farce, because all those worldly things have already been used to exhaustion, and are of no value to the recipients. Concerned, the son asks his father, "Dear father, to whom will you give me away?". He asked it a second, and then a third time. The father, seized by anger, replied: "To Death, I give you away."
Nachiketa does not die, but accepts his father's gifting him to Death, by visiting the abode of Yama, the god of death. Nachiketa arrives, but Yama is not in his abode. Nachiketa as guest goes hungry for three nights. Yama later arrives and is apologetic for this dishonour to the guest, so he offers Nachiketa three boons.
Nachiketa's first wish is that Yama discharge him from the abode of death, back to his family, and that his father be calm, well-disposed, not resentful. Yama grants the first wish immediately.
For his second wish, Nachiketa asks Yama, to teach him the proper execution of fire ritual that enables a human being to secure heaven. Yama responds by detailing the fire ritual, including how the bricks should be arranged. Nachiketa remembers what Yama tells him, repeats the ritual, a feat which pleases Yama, and he declares that this fire ritual will thereafter be called the "Nachiketa fires". Yama adds that along with "three Nachiketa fires", anyone who respects three bonds (with mother, father and teacher), does three kinds of karma (rituals, studies and charity), and understands the knowledge therein, becomes free of sorrow.
Nachiketa then goes for his third wish, asking Yama "what happens after a person dies? Does he continue to exist in another form? or not?" There was expression of reluctance by Yama in giving a straight "yes or no" answer. Yama offers him all sorts of worldly wealth and pleasures instead, but Nachiketa sticks to his question, "what happens after death?"
Yama asserts that man must not fear death, as the true essence of man is Atman, which is neither born nor dies; he is eternal, he is Brahman.
The Atman is not born, nor does it die. It does not originate from anybody, nor does it become anybody. Eternal, ancient one, Atman remains eternal. He is not killed, even though the body is killed. The Self (Atman), smaller than the smallest, greater than greatest, is hidden in the heart of each creature. It is free from avarice, free from grief, peaceful and content. That is the supreme glory of Atman.
In final verses of the second Valli, the Katha Upanishad asserts that Atman-knowledge, or Self-realization, is not attained by instruction, not arguments nor reasoning from scriptures. It is comprehended by oneself through meditation and introspection. It is not attained by those who do not abstain from misconduct, not those who are restless nor composed, not those whose mind is not calm and tranquil, but only those who live ethically, are composed, tranquil, internally peaceful, search within and examine their own nature.
The third Valli of Katha Upanishad presents the parable of the chariot, to highlight how Atman, body, mind, senses and empirical reality relate to a human being.
Know that the Atman is the rider in the chariot, and the body is the chariot,
Know that the Buddhi (intelligence, ability to reason) is the charioteer, and Manas (mind) is the reins. The senses are called the horses, the objects of the senses are their paths. Formed out of the union of the Atman, the senses and the mind, him they call the "enjoyer".
The Katha Upanishad presents a hierarchy of Reality from the perspective of a human being. It asserts that Artha (objects, means of life) are above Indriya (senses), that Manas (mind) is above Artha in this hierarchy, above Manas is Buddhi, the intellect or ability to reason. Above the Buddhi is Atman (his Soul, great Self). Beyond the Atman, states Katha Upanishad, is the Avyaktam (unmanifested Reality), and then the Purusha (cosmic soul). Beyond the Purusha, there is nothing - for it is the goal, for it is the highest road.
The Katha Upanishad explains what is Atman, how it can be known, the nature of Atman, and why it ought to be known. The last few verses give the secret of the Yoga by means of which one can arrive at the God-knowledge, soul-knowledge, and world-knowledge.
Yama’s explanation is a succinct explication of Hindu metaphysics, and focuses on the following points:
- Self is the same as the omnipresent Brahman.
- The goal of the wise is to know this Self.
- Self is like a rider on a chariot; should control the senses driving it.
- It is only the immortal Self that survives even after death.
- Self cannot be realised merely through good deeds or staying away from bad deeds.
- One must realize that self is different from the body.
- Those shrouded by darkness are subject to cycle of rebirths.
- Realizing the Self leads to liberation.
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
As oil in sesame seeds, as butter in milk, as water in Srota, (dry riverbeds which if dug reveal water), as fire in fuel-sticks, he finds in his own self that One (Atman), he, who sees him through Satya (truthfulness) and austerity. — Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.15-1.16.
‘Shveta’ refers to purity or white colour. ‘Ashva’ refers to Horse or the senses. ‘Tara’ refers to ‘getting carried’. Hence the compound meaning may be taken to read as the one which helps us to control our senses. It could also mean the name of the Rishi who framed the Upanishad, marking him with respect as a sage who controlled his senses.
This Upanishad differs from others in that there are several mentions made of names of gods, more pronouncedly of Lord Shiva, as compared to other Upanishad, which do not mention any names of gods. The emphasize is not on realising the Brahman, but on devotion to personal god, Ishvara.
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad consists of 6 Adhyayas and 113 verses. It opens with metaphysical questions about the primal cause of all existence, its origin, its end, and what role, if any, time, nature, necessity, chance, and the spirit had as the primal cause. It then develops its answer, concluding that "the Universal Soul exists in every individual, it expresses itself in every creature, everything in the world is a projection of it, and that there is Oneness, a unity of souls in one and only Self".
The Upanishad asserts, in verse 1.3, there are individuals who by meditation and yoga have realized their innate power of Self, powers that were veiled by their own gunas (innate personality). Therefore, it is this "power of the Divine Soul" (Deva Atman Shakti) within each individual that presides over all the primal causes, including time and self.
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.13 to 1.16, states that to know God, look within, know your Atman (Soul, Self). It suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent churning of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge and ethics is, asserts the Upanishad, the goal of Upanishad.
The second Adhyaya of Shvetashvatara Upanishad is a motley collection of themes. It begins with prayer hymns to God Savitr, as the rising sun, the spiritual illuminator and the deity of inspiration and self-discipline. Thereafter, the Upanishad discusses yoga as a means for self-knowledge.
The verses 2.8 and 2.9 describes yoga as state of body and mind, wherein the body is in threefold erect posture, and mind along with all senses are withdrawn into an introspective point within (the heart). In this state of yoga, the individual then breathes gently slowly through the nose, states the Upanishad, with any physical motions subdued or the body is still, the mind calm and undistracted. Such is the state where the self-reflective meditation starts. The text recommends a place to perform such yoga exercise as follows,
In a clean level spot, free from pebbles, fire and gravel,
Delightful by its sounds, its water and bowers,
Favourable to thought, not offensive to the eye,
In a hidden retreat protected from the wind,
One should practise Yoga. — Shvetashvatara Upanishad 2.10
The Upanishad, in verse 2.13, describes the first benefits of yoga to be agility, better health, clear face, sweetness of voice, sweet odour, regular body functions, steadiness, and feeling of lightness in one's personality. Yoga then leads to the knowledge of the essence of the Self, the nature of the Soul.
Verses 3.1 through 3.6 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad describe the Atman as the personal God, as the one and only Lord, that resides within, the origin of all gods, calling it the Isha or Rudra. This innermost Self, is stated as under the sway of Māyā or Prakrti.
The verses 3.7 through 3.21 of the Upanishad describes Brahman as the highest, the subtlest and the greatest, concealed in all beings, one that encompasses all of the universe, formless, without sorrow, changeless, all pervading, kind Shiva, one who applies the power of knowledge, the Purusha, one with the whole world as it is, one with the whole world as it has been, one with the whole world as it will be. It is the Atman, the Self of all.
The Upanishad states that Brahman is in all Vedic deities, in all women, in all men, in all boys, in all girls, in every old man tottering on a stick, in every bee and bird, in all seasons and all seas.
The fourth chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad contains the famous metaphorical verse 4.5, that was oft-cited and debated:
There is one unborn being (feminine), red, white and black,
but producing many creatures like herself,
There is one unborn being (masculine) who loves her and stays with her,
there is another unborn being (masculine) who leaves her after loving her.
The metaphor of three colours has been interpreted as the three Gunas, with red symbolizing harmonious purity (Sattva), white as confused passion (Rajas), and black as destructive darkness (Tamas).
Another interpretation is where the three colours are interpreted to be "fire, water and food".The unborn being with feminine gender is symbolically the Prakrti or Sakthi (nature, matter), while the two masculine beings are Cosmic Self (Paramatman) and the Individual Self (Jivatman), the former experiencing delight and staying with Prakrti always, the latter leaves after experiencing the delight of Prakrti.
All three are stated in the verse to be "unborn", implying that all three are eternal. The Samkhya school of Hinduism cites this verse for Vedic support of their dualistic doctrine. The Vedanta school, in contrast, cites the same verse but points to the context of the chapter which has already declared that everything, including the feminine (Prakrti) and masculine (Purusha), the individual soul and the cosmic soul, is nothing but Oneness and of a single Brahman.
These verses are notable because these verses are one of the oldest known explicit statement of the Māyā doctrine. The verse 4.10 is also significant because it uses the term Maheswaram, referring directly to Lord Shiva, for the one who is "Māyā-maker".
The principal teachings of this Upanishad are:
o Realise the oneness of everything.
o Meditation and yoga are means to realise this oneness
o Deeper thoughts on personal God
o Shiva & Sakti are the link to Brahman
o Bhakti towards God is a means to achieve oneness
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
The likely root for the Upanishad is probably the name of an ancient Indian scholar, Maitra, sometimes spelled Maitri or Maitreya, giving the text other names of Maitri or Maitra Upanishad. The ancient scholar is also credited with a school of thought, thus giving the text the name Maitrayaniya Upanishad.
This Upanishad narrates the tale of a king named Brihadratha who renounces his kingdom, lives an austere life and therewith seeks the knowledge of the eternal, the Soul. Sage Śākāyanyaappears before the king. The king pleads to the sage to teach him the knowledge of the Soul. In the resulting reply, the sage Śākāyanya first claims advises him it is difficult for him to understand and then urges the king to ask something else. The king insists, by asking a series of metaphysical questions to the sage.
The king enquires: “How can one experience only joy, in this body infected with passions, anger, greed, delusion, fright, despondency, grudge, separation from what is dear and desirable, attachment to what is not desirable, hunger, thirst, old age, death, illness, sorrow and the rest?
Sakayanya answers the king's question, in verse 2.2 of Maitri Upanishad, by asserting that Atman (soul, self) exists in every individual, and it is that innermost being which "moves about without moving" (exists everywhere), which dispels darkness of ignorance and error, which is serene, immortal, fearless and soaring for the highest light. The Maitri Upanishad states that this is the message of all Upanishads.
Sage Sakayanya thereafter states:
"man was created in the image of its creator, innately has all its powers, and is driven by it".
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad states that the Prajapati (Lord of all creatures) divided himself fivefold and entered all creatures of the world.
The divided parts are: Prana, Apana, Samana, Udana and Vyana.
Prana is upward breath, Apana is downward breath (exhale).
Vyana holds the Prana and Apana in balance, giving strength to the whole body.
Samana is that which carries gross food to Apana and then subtler food throughout the body.
Udana is that which delivers food up and down the body from what has been eaten or drunk.
The heat (Agni) that is produced in the process of breathing is the basis for soul of the person, called the ‘jivatman’, which assumes the nature of Buddhi, the intellect, power to reason. However, having divided itself fivefold, its purpose unattained, it impulsively decides to enjoy objects.
The Upanishad, thereafter recites the "parable of chariot" found in older Upanishads. The perceptive organs are his reins, the active organs his horses, the body his chariot, the mind the charioteer, the whip being the temperament (emotions). Driven by that whip, his body goes round and round like a wheel driven by the potter. This body is made intelligent, and Atman) is the driver thereof. He experiences the fruits of his Karma, his personality the weaving of the three Guṇas (sattva, rajas, tamas).
In essence, however, man seeks the true bliss, the immortal happiness, the resplendent contentment, the calm freedom that is his Atman, states paragraph 2.7 of Maitri Upanishad. The Atman is inherently good, enjoyer of that which is right, the Truth.
The Upanishad then explores the reason for human suffering, its causes and the nature of souls. It states that the jivatman (individual soul) residing in the body is over shadowed by the predominance of the three gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas) depending upon the individual’s innate personality and the Jivatman gets concealed, hidden and imprisoned, just like a bird gets caught in the web of Maya, the Prakriti. In this process the individual suffers due to his own actions, resulting in enhanced karma. All this while, the Atman, the immortal Soul, remains unaffected, witnessing the whole show. He who acts, is the individual Soul; he who causes to act, is the inner Atman (immortal Soul).
The Upanishad quotes the example of an iron ball, when heated by fire, gets affected by it and turns into several forms, while the fire itself is unaffected. Thus the jivatman, pervaded by inner Atman, and hammered by gunas (his personality) becomes manifold with many different individuals, based on his guna or personality.
The Maitri Upanishad in paragraph 3.4 explains the quality of the three gunas as follows:
Predominance of Tamas guna (darkness) results in confusion, fear, grief, sloth, carelessness, decay, sorrow, hunger, thirst, infidelity, anger, ignorance, cruelty, meanness, envy, shamelessness, pride, folly, dishonesty, arrogance, miserliness".
The quality of Rajas (aggressiveness) results in greed, covetousness, craving, possessiveness, unkindness, hatred, deceit, restlessness, mania, fickleness, wooing and impressing others, servitude, flattery, hedonism, gluttony, prodigality and peevishness".
The quality of Sattva guna is pure knowledge and hence it does not affect the individual soul, rather it helps to reach the Atman.
While the elemental Self is thus affected, the inner Self, the immortal soul, the inner spectator is unaffected, asserts the Upanishad.
The individual soul is distracted, intoxicated and attached to numerous things in life, craving for false delights, which prevents its ability to know the true Self. The way to realise the true Self, Atman, says the Upanishad, is to perform one’s duties without let, based on one’s age and the ‘Svadharma’, that is to say, the duties enshrined upon individuals, whether he is in samsara (family life) or on sanyasa (ascetic life) ashrama. It asserts that as long as one performs their duties, it does not matter whether it is in samsara or sanyasa, he is bound to unite with Atman.
The Upanishad asserts that meditation, austerities, perseverance and knowledge leads to Brahman state, of bliss that is imperishable, infinite and unchangeable. It is this union of Brahman that frees the true Self unto bliss.
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad addresses the question as to which of the gods is best for worship. The text answers that gods are merely forms of Brahman, that one should meditate upon and worship, keeping in mind that gods are just a temporary means to man's liberation, which is obtained through Soul meditation and in Self-knowledge. This is expounded on, as follows,
Agni (fire), Vayu (wind) and Aditya (sun),
Kala (time), Prana (breath), and Food,
Brahma, Rudra and Vishnu -
some meditate upon one, some upon another,
tell us which one is the best?
These are foremost forms of the supreme, the immortal, the bodiless Brahman. To whichever deity each man is attached, in its world he rejoices. Yet, it is said, this whole world is Brahman. These deities, which are its foremost forms, one should meditate upon, worship. He thus unites with the universal, and attains union with the Soul. — Maitri Upanishad 4.5-4.6
The Upanishad asserts the Guna theory of Samkhya school of Hinduism. The text states that in the beginning the universe was darkness (Tamas) alone.
The Brahman impelled Tamas to differentiate, thus arose passion (action qua action, Rajas).
The Brahman impelled Rajas to continue differentiating, and thus arose purity (right action, truth, Sattva).
These three Gunas reside in everything. The aspect of Brahman that characterizes Tamas is Rudra.
The aspect of Brahman that characterizes Rajas is Brahma.
The aspect of Brahman that characterizes Sattva is Vishnu.
These threefold concepts have differentiated manifold into eightfold, elevenfold, into infinite number of parts, states the Upanishad. These, all creatures, and the Visva (empirical universe) are manifestations of one Supreme Soul, within and without. Soul's existence is reflected by the development of goodness (virtues). It is this Soul that is reflected in man, just like sun is reflected in different vessels of water.
The significance of ‘Ohm’ symbol is discussed in many Principal Upanishads, including the Maitri. The Upanishad states that the world is Ohm, its light is Sun. Meditating on Om, is equivalent to acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman. The sound ‘Ohm’ is the body of Atman and it expresses itself in three-folds all over. The three roots of the word are “A + U + M”. It manifests in living beings as feminine, masculine and neuter; in deities it manifests as creator, preserver and destroyer. In knowledge as Rig, Yajur, Saman; as worlds it manifests as Bhur, Bhuvah, Svah; in time as past, present and future; in heat as breath, fire and sun; grows in jivatman as food, water and moon; in thought as intellect, mind and psyche.
Ohm represents the immaterial, eternal, formless form of Brahman. Ohm appears as the light of Sun; Sun is the origin of time; time is the origin of food; food is the source of the world.
Yoga forms an important part of this Upanishad, when it explains the six limbs of yoga (as compared to eight limbs of Patanjali yoga) such as:
Pranayama (regulation of breath),
Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses inwards)
Dhyana (deep meditation),
Dharana (concentration of mind on one idea),
Tarka (creative, contemplation of idea),
Samadhi (absorption with the idea, a state of being one with the idea)
Through tranquillity of his thought,
Karma, good and evil, he destroys,
with Soul serene, residing in his Soul,
Joy eternal he enjoys — Maitri Upanishad 6.20.
Yoga is explained as a means to destroy one’s karma and thus enjoy bliss.
The concept of ‘Sunya’ (Voidness) and ‘Poorna’ (infinity) are found abundantly in this Upanishad. When asked “Which of them is Atman?”, Maitri Upanishad 6.3 answers: “He who has been described as pure, clean, void, quite, infinite….”
The Upanishad categorically states that Atman exists; that reasoning, steadfastness, recollection, consciousness are related to Atman, as plants are related to seeds, as smoke is related to flame and sparks to fire. The Atman, states the Upanishad, is the source of all life-forces, all worlds, all the Vedas, all gods, all beings, all knowledge, all nature, all literature, all sciences, all explanations, all commentaries, it is in everything.
The goal of meditation, states Maitri Upanishad in section 6.34, is to reach liberation and tranquillity of mind through Self-realization. This liberation is achieved through one's mind, by refining one's thoughts, through knowing Atman. The text includes a hymn, which in abridged form expresses these ideas as follows:
चित्तमेव हि संसारम्त त्प्रयत्नेन शोधयेत्य
च्चित्तस्तन्मयो भवति गुह्यमेतत्सनातनम्[88]
Mind alone is the Saṁsāra, man should strive to purify his thoughts,
what a man thinks that he becomes, this is the eternal mystery — Maitri Upanishad 6.34.
The mind of man, states the Upanishad, is the cause of his bondage and his freedom. The one whose mind is controlled by objects of sense is unfree, the one whose mind is guided by his soul is liberated.
We can summarise this Upanishad as follows:
o ‘Atman exists’ in every individual as Prana, Apana, Samana, Udana and Vyana
o It is the source of eternal joy
o Man was created in the image of creator.
o Individual variations occur due the gunas.
o Individual suffers when he gets caught in Maya.
o Attending to one’s duties is a sure way to liberation.
o Gods are temporary means to reach Supreme Brahman.
o The word ‘Ohm’ is Brahman.
o Yoga and meditation lead to identifying the Atman within.
o What a man thinks, that he becomes.
Srauta Sutras
The Yajurveda has Shrauta Sutras and Grhya Sutras attached to it, from fifteen schools:
Apastamba, Agastya, Agniveshyaka, Baudhayana, Bharadvaja, Hiranyakeshi, Kaundinya, Kusidaka, Katyayana, Lokaksita, Madhyamdina, Panca-Kathaka, Satyasadha, Sakala, Sandilya, Vaikhanasa, and Vadula.
Of these nine have survived, along with portions of Kaundinya.
Gṛhya sūtras are religious guides on conducting the household yajñas or private yajñas, done in smārtāgni. These include saṃskāra rituals and chores like Aupāsanam or Samidādhānam.
Śulbasūtras are works pertaining to design and mathematics of yajñavedīs. Yajñavedi construction involves mathematically computed figures, made in particular ways, following certain rules. So, śūlbasūtras also consist of statements about geometric constructions known to them at the time. They are often attached to śrauta sūtras.
Conclusion to Yajur Veda
Yajurveda contains the most important mantras for sacrificial rituals in the Hindu religion, such as the Gayathri Mantra, Purusha Suktam, Sri Rudram etc. The Yajur Veda is seen as the most important of the four Vedas (Kapoor 1965). Without the Yajur Veda one cannot understand the Brahmanas and without these, the Upanishads. It is prominent now just as it was three thousand years ago.
The essence of pleasing the gods and balancing the cosmos is brought out in the Yajur Veda through its rituals. The Yajur Veda holds a special place in not only the Vedic canon but also to anyone who believes in the Vedas. The Yajurveda is thoroughly ritual in character and contains the liturgical formulas arranged in accordance to the actual practice, as in, they are arranged exactly in the order that they were to be used for the sacrifice.
Yajur Veda gives prominence to the priests who perform the yagna in all its complexities. While the priests of Yajur Veda are called “advaryu”, the priests of other Vedas are called differently as “hotr, udgaatru and brahma” for the Rig, Sama and Adarva Vedas.
Yajur Veda contains a great mantra, called ‘Mantra Pushpam’, (garland of flowers made of mantra), which is normally sung by all the priests together after performing any Pooja or Yagna. It emphasises that there is oneness in the universe and in all elements. The sounds of this mantra are divine, connecting you to your inner being.
MANTRA PUSHPAM: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUia5dmmEb4
Yopam puspam veda Puspavan prajavan pasuvan bhavati
Candramava Apam puspam Puspavan, Prajavan pasuman bhavati
Ya Evam Veda Yopa mayatanam Veda Ayatanam bhavati.
• He who understands the flowers of water, he becomes the possessor of flowers, children and cattle.
• Moon is the flower of the water, he who understands this fact, he becomes the possessor of flowers, children and cattle.
• He who knows the source of water, becomes established in himself,
Agnirva Apamayatanam Ayatanavan Bhavati
Yo agnerayatanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
Apovagner ayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Ya Evam Veda Yopa mayatanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
Fire is the source of water, he who knows this, becomes established in himself,
• Water is the source of fire, He who knows this, becomes established in himself.
• He who knows the source of water, becomes established in himself,
Vayurva Apamaya tanam Ayatanavan bhavati.
Yova Yorayatanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati|
Apovai va yorayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati.
Ya Evam veda Yopamayatanam Veda Ayatanavan Bhavati
• Air is the source of water, He who knows this, becomes established in himself,
• Water is the source of air, He who knows this, becomes established in himself.
• He who knows the source of water, becomes established in himself,
Asowvai tapanna pamayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Yo musya tapata Ayatanan Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
Apova Amusyatapata Ayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Ya Evam Veda Yopa mayatanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
Scorching sun is the source of water, He who knows this, becomes established in himself,
• Water is the source of scorching sun, He who knows this, becomes established in himself.
• He who knows the source of water, becomes established in himself,
Chandrama Vama pamayatnam Ayatanavan bhavati.
Yascandra masa Ayatanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
Apovai Chandra masa Ayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Ya Evam Veda Yo pamayatanam veda Ayatanavan bhavati
• Moon is the source of water, he who knows this, becomes established in himself,
• Water is the source of moon, he who knows this, becomes established in himself.
• He who knows the source of water, becomes established in himself,
Nakshtrani va Apamayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Yo Nakshtrana mayatanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
Apovai Nakshtrana mayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Ye evam Veda Yopamaya tanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
• Stars are the source of water, he who knows this, becomes established in himself,
• Water is the source of stars, he who knows this, becomes established in himself.
• He who knows the source of water, becomes established in himself,
Parjanyova apamayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Yah parjanyasya syayatinam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
Apovai parjanya Syayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Ye Evam veda Yopa maya tanam Veda Ayatanavan bhavati
• Clouds are the source of water, he who knows this, becomes established in himself,
• Water is the source of clouds, he who knows this, becomes established in himself.
• He who knows the source of water, becomes established in himself,
Samvastaro Va Apamayatanam Ayatavan bhavati
Yassavatsa rasyaya tanam Veda Ayatavan bhavati.
Apovai samvasara ayatanam Ayatanavan bhavati
Ya Evam veda Yopsu Navam pratistitam veda Pratyeva tistati
• Rainy season is the source of water, he who knows this, becomes established in himself,
• Water is the source of rainy season, he who knows this, becomes established in himself.
• He who knows that there is a raft available, becomes established in that raft.
This concludes my blog on Yajur Veda. Here is bidding you, till we meet again in my next blog on Sama Veda.
ॐ
सर्वे भवन्तु सुखिनः सर्वे सन्तु निरामयाः।
सर्वे भद्राणि पश्यन्तु मा कश्चिद्दुःखभाग् भवेत्।।
sarve bhavantu sukhinaḥ sarve santu nirāmayāḥ|
sarve bhadrāṇi paśyantu mā kaścidduḥkhabhāg bhavet||
May all be happy; May all be free from weaknesses; May all see good;
May none partake suffering.
Following is the Purification & Blessing (Asirvatha) mantra from Yajur Veda
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XJQ4qD9oFQ
Stay Blessed.
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